Ole Egholm - Concrete making and formwork tectonics - doctoral defense

More flexible formed formwork tectonics

The Cast Thicket project I just wrote about here reminds me of work by the Danish architect and doctoral student Ole Egholm who also explores the formwork tectonics of folded plastic sheets. Egholm  is defending his doctoral thesis on Friday September 13th 2013 in Aarhus. His project is related to my own doctoral work in the sense that it is about concrete, formwork tectonics, about flexible formwork, uses Gottfried Semper and other similar theories and key texts about tectonics, and it is investigated through making with the assistance of lots of great students, yet Ole has a digital starting point where as my own investigations were analog. Also important is his focus on building systems based on concrete elements, for example the vault shown below. 

[Youtube video of the assembly of the ReVault]

The use of concrete elements in Denmark could definitely use a lift and Ole's approach is great. His project has the title The Tectonic Potentials of Concrete and you can read an English summary of it here. The experiment shown below is from the ReVault workshop made in Aarhus as a collaboration between researchers and architecture students from Aarhus and from University of Technology, (UTS) in Sydney, Australia.

[Images from Re-vault, via. Elements are connected with zip ties. See more images here]

Ole and I have found similar sources of inspiration and this becomes clear when Ole Egholm writes about his conceptual universe that it 

"is based on research into established writings concerning tectonic thinking. The ideas of German Theorist Gottfried Semper are presented as a strategy for describing form as a result of materials and technical matter. Furthermore the idea of poetic construction is presented. Set forth by the English / American theorist Kenneth Frampton, the idea is that poetic construction is achievable though attention the properties of materials, structural logics and the craft of making. The thoughts of Marco Frascari which suggest a reading of details as a creator of meaning are introduced to be able to help establishing a progression in the case studies. Due to the narrow research focus on the making of concrete, an additional conceptual framework which emphasizes tectonics as a physical phenomenon is presented: The relationship between material, technique and form. Finally, a distinction was made between relationships surrounding mould making and the actual creation of geometric forms in concrete. The former was referred to as mould tectonics, the latter concrete tectonics." From Egholm's summary

This relation between formwork principles and the cured physical manifestation (concrete) is what I relate to as Stereogeneity - I think that Ole, as I am, is drawing on the definition of tectonics presented by Eduard Sekler. - well, I did write an entire post about Sekler, the tectonic, and the relationship between the mold and the molded here

Revault credits, participants

Eleven students from Aarhus School of Architecture (AAA) and UTS

Dave Pigram -architect, Senior lecturer - UTS

Ole Egholm Pedersen - architect, ph.d. candidate - AAA

Niels Martin Larsen - architect, ph.d. candidate - AAA

Stefan Rask Nors - architect, assistant professor - AAA

Ronni Lundoff Madsen - M.Sc. Architectural Engineering - Alectia

Jacob Christensen - M.Sc. Architectural Engineering - Vision+

CAM Fingerprints as ornaments of construction

Robotic milling, EPS (expanded polystyrene foam) and concrete are the dancing partners in the newly defended PhD project by architect/industrial designer Johannes Rauff Greisen.

[Johannes Rauff Greisen in front of the industrial robot. Photo by Martin Kunzendorf, via]

As most academic titles, it's sexy: "Architectonic possibilities by robotic fabrication of formwork in concrete building". The project behind the title, however is great because it takes on an investigation of the architectural potentials of the technique by making lots of formwork and testing it and discussing this in terms of architectural applications as well as the challenges of actually using EPS as a mold for concret. The scope of the investigation includes scale issues as well as economic drivers for a new aesthetics.

Starting with the prototypes, Johannes was an Industrial Doctorate at the concrete centre at the Danish Technological Institute (TI). TI had purchased a robot which they had Johannes get well acquainted with - but furthermore the concrete centre has fully automatic but tiny version of an industrial mixing plant to make completely scaleable concrete mix designs. (Sensing my envy here?)

[Thousands of light transmitting fibers for the concrete formwork before the pour. Image from Johannes Rauff Greisen's research via]

One of Johannes' experiments is one of those that 'can't be done', namely making translucent and image/pixel transferring concrete. - Well, on a curved surface that is. I am not good at explaining it and the available image online are less than great, so have a browse through Johannes' well-illustrated paper for the Prototyping Architecture conference, which we both attended earlier this year. - Download the proceedings here ((90+ Mb))and locate the paper and lots of images on page 131.

[The curved concrete screen with embedded optical fibers displaying/projecting the image shown on the computer screen. - Trust me, you'll get it as you browse through the paper! Image via]

Cheap becomes ornamental potential

Another series of experiments deal with effectivity of the milling process. Often the aim with milled formwork - well the desire, anyway - is completely smooth and endless surfaces. One of the drawbacks here is price - the 'closer' the shave, the finer the tool, so to speak. In milling terms, this means that a finer milling tool would be needed for finer, more controlled surfaces. This is costly because of the time. - So, why not make a virtue out of the necessity and praise the crude patterns of the cheaper manufacturing to add an extra layer of interpretation on the concrete surface? What is at stake here, for Yours Concretely, is the robot version of stereogeneity which I wrote about here. 

[Fine patterns of milling or CAM fingerprints shown on the concrete surface (and my new nail polish). The image is by Rauff Greisen and reproduced from the anthology Material Evidence in Architectural Research, Eds Anne Beim & Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen]

[Coarser patterns of milling or CAM fingerprints shown on concrete surface. The image is by Rauff Greisen and reproduced from the anthology Material Evidence in Architectural Research, Eds Anne Beim & Mette Ramsgaard Thomsen]

Rather than fighting the inherent formal language of the milling tool, Johannes advocates the new aesthetic, almost ornamental language of a still new manufacturing process. He coins the term CAM Fingerprints in his dissertation as associated the expressed process of manufacture from coarser, cheaper milling.

Johannes sums this up:

At one end the scale is expanded by introducing fine detail and light emitting elements in the surface, elements which are so extremely small that they become a material component. At the other end of the scale, is introduced architectural use of a coarse milling, the so-called CAM fingerprint. Hitherto it has been the aim to obtain as smooth as possible milling. Targeted use of coarse milling is new and consists in consciously working with the robot's working pattern that forms a partially controlled technology fingerprint. This autonomous CAM fingerprint can be interpreted as neo-industrial digital ornament that share kinship with past ornaments - both the craft-based unintended ornaments and more random material contingent ornamentation. The Ph.D. thesis addresses these kinships openly, but concludes that the resource economy and practices around the coarse milling immediately lays considerably closer to the existing concrete building culture than the smooth milling. The Ph.D. project thus brings the robots opportunities closer to practical concrete buildings as architectural CAM fingerprints can reduce milling times and thus reduce the final manufacturing costs. Via

[CAM fingerprint consists of "milling tool's working patterns which are marketed in the mold surface and provides a technology footprint to the concrete surface. Here used CAM fingerprint as relief in an urban space concept (designed to SLA), consisting of a 'melting landscape' in concrete" cast with a membrane formliner via]

Johannes even suggests the term of a future concrete in a new-industrial context, robot concrete. This I am less convinced about but I really like the CAM fingerprints term and this eye for new aesthetics and ornamental potentials based on new techniques.

Despite the high-/low-tech discrepancy between fabric formwork and the 3d milled EPS this whole approach and love for expressing construction may tell you that we were in fact researching under the same roof, at the Royal DK Academy. Johannes was also my suuuper handy and cool cat co-teacher at several of the TEK1 workshops about fabric formwork.

Read an article (in Danish) about the perspectives of Johannes' research.

Concrete as stereogeneous construction or an academic material?

This post is an attempt to describe a concept that I have coined – stereogeneity – or concrete as a material and as process. If you wonder how that stereo word has any relation with concrete – it may be good to know that stereophonic or stereo sound means solid sound – because stereos is Greek for solid or hard and phone is voice in Greek (news to me).

While we may forget that sound is solid – there is rarely any forgetting that of concrete. So, often, concrete is explained in simple ways as the contrast between liquid and solid. Architects explain their fascination with the material because it, at least conceptually, is easily molded like a piece of clay in the hand. Yet the truth is, of course, more complex.

Multiple design tasks for concrete
For even minimal construction projects such as student workshops this means that they have to design structural formwork principles, the concrete object/structure, as well as the process of construction – and all simultaneously. I guess this focus on the relationship between architectural technology and the expression of construction and materials is somewhat old school tectonics. But I love it – call it tectonics or not, this approach to architecture is bound to a Scandinavian pragmatic and sober tradition in design and construction. – and then it is the foundation for constructing fabric formed concrete. Everything shows – the potential as well as the ‘danger’ when the slightest pinches, the shape and position of formtie impactos, - and when things go slightly wrong. – it all shows.

[Detail of the Walking Chromosome Column by yours Concretely, 2013. The formwork is closed using a seam technique and the fabric is sweating excess mix water under the hydrostatic pressure of the freshly poured concrete]

Take off the aesthetics hat and wear what?
In order to discuss as well as develop the architectural potentials for fabric formwork it has proved necessary to define a concept to embrace this relation rather than the concrete 'results'. With only a few built examples of fabric formed concrete and thus no context for a judgement, I am really reluctant to use aesthetics or beauty as factors for evalation here because it is not so relevant if you love or are repulsed by strange bulging concrete. If you do not like it, fine, but wearing the habitual hat of the aesthetic limits the scope of any investigation.

Concrete-ness?
The pioneer in fabric formwork, Mark West, once referenced an essay by American art critic and poet Peter Schjeldahl in which he describes concrete-ness and the presence and personality and intrinsic dichotomy of the liquid and solid characteristics of concrete.
 “Concrete is the most careless, promiscuous stuff until it is committed, when it becomes fa¬natically adamant. Liquid rock, concrete is born under a sign of paradox and does not care […] 
Concrete hardens in the shape of whatever container received its flow, its momentary sensual abandon in thoughtless submission to half-loved gravity. Once it has set, what a difference! Concrete becomes adamant, fanatical, a Puritan, a rock, Robespierre – the divinity! – of the shape it comprises, be the shape a glopped heap on the ground or a concert hall, ridiculous or sublime.”

Right, liquid concrete is promiscuous – it lets itself embrace in any shape and caress by any material formwork. Solid concrete on the other hand is not to be messed with. While describing each material extreme Scheldal’s approach to concrete-ness does not quite encompass the techniques, intentions, nor materials of getting from one condition to the other.

Concrete in Greek
I turned to my friend, the Greek author Iosif Alygizakis, to help me out. With his kind assistance I wanted to coin a term that would encompass how or that concrete when cured and solid appears with signs of its becoming. Why Greek you may wonder?? – well there are two direct reasons. – I have been studying the theories of Gottfried Semper and here concrete lies between a number of his schematic labels for materials and procedures – exactly due to the different materials, techniques and conditions of the material. The concept of stereotomi (cut stone or ‘mass’) is often associated with brickwork. Tectonic with timber, Ceramics with clay, and textile with weavings or the clad/draped façade.

Greek in many tongues
The other reason is very pragmatic – for the longest time I did not know which language I was writing my PhD dissertation… Danish or English. Greek is neutral in the sense that it is used in both languages and always means the same.
Iosif dissected words and meaning through almost mathematical methods and summa summarum he created a new word based on the words for solid stereos and for becoming  - i.e. to begin to be, genés

Stereo|genés

Στερεό|γενές written without the  |  in the middle

Genés – not genesis
Genés is an ending – which comes the verb: ginomai [ginomæ]
- it means: to become – it means – to be in the process of becoming something, to begin to be
- and – becoming what?? – well, StereoThe Gr. Ginomai refers to procedure of becoming. It describes the process of the becoming of – through a procedure.
What does it become – stereo – Gr. solid – by this formulation we don't need the word fluid, liquid.
It is absolute
If it becomes solid – stereo – so, of course, it was totally understandably liquid
Of factual ideas or constructural items in order for them to become something else, something – as an aftermath as a product. – important – it is through a series of manufacture.
Stereo-geneous – the English – an adjective

[above is basically notes taken from Iosif explaining the meaning of the words and their connection]

Petro or stereo
In the US there seem to be a use of the word cultured stone as a commercial word for concrete for design and architecture – and perhaps especially for home owners. – liquid stone and cultured stone – the words can be found in Iosif ‘s other suggestion petrogenés, petro is Greek for stone. I went for stereos because, well – concrete is more than stone to me and I liked how it sounded too.

[Detail of striking the formwork for the Walking Chromosome Column by yours Concretely, TEK1 2013. The seam as well as the fabric have left stereogeneous traces.

Sekler's tectonic
The discussion of concrete as material and process is not new - and also the relationship between structural principles, materials, techniques and construction is overly described, I know. Stereogeneity is to concrete, especially in situ concrete, what Eduards Sekler’s use of the term tectonic is to the overall relation is between structural principles, techniques and the expressed physical manifestation.

So, in English, stereogenés is stereogeneity. The value of concrete as a substance is stereogeneous – it is something that develops from a liquid to a solid state.

And how to use this?? Well, in my dissertation work I have developed the use the term by discussing qualities in built concrete works by architects such as Louis Kahn, Frank Lloyd Wright, Jean Nouvel and Peter Zumthor – to describe the relation between process and materiality. For the analytical cases of fabric formed concrete I have been even more specific and looked at the role of particular details in construction: The form-tie, the frame, and the textile. Furthermore, the aspect of conditions or states between liquid and solid has allowed to focus on a particular state in the 'becoming' of the analytical cases, say the intentions behind experiments, the particular technique behind a detail versus its stereogeneous consequence at the end.

– I  hope to return to this topic and the cases in a stereogeneous light in future posts.

References
Manelius, Anne-Mette (2012) Fabric Formwork - Investigations into Steregeneity and Formwork Tectonics in Architectural Constructions, PhD dissertation, Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture.
Schjeldahl, Peter (1994) Columns & Catalogues. Great Barrington MA: The Figures.
Sekler, Eduard. “Structure, Construction, Tectonics.” In Structure in Art and Science, edited by Gyorgy Kepes, 89- 95. New York: George Braziller, 1965.

As always, please accredit me if you use any of the original points or images from this post. I'd love to know how you used or applied it and what your think.

Formwork tectonics - to round a square column

[2-meter high fabric-formed concrete column]

Formal consequence

The use of flexible molds entails a direct formal relation between the tectonic principles of the formwork structure, the type of concrete pour, and its concrete consequence, so to speak. It is a potential to develop the details in formwork construction because they are technical as well as aesthetic/form giving. On the other hand, this formal consequence means that all mistakes show themselves as well with equal power, and this is a disadvantage of the building method unless you see mess-ups as a charm. The dilemma of course is that working meticulously in construction shows high-level craftsmanship. This comes at a price in hours and wages, in Denmark 70% of the cost of concrete elements go to wages.

[Images of fabric-formed plaster model 1:4] 

Formwork tectonics

One of the student groups at the 2013 TEK1 workshop at RDAFA also concluded this from their preliminary experiments with fabric formed plaster casts. When attempting to literately tailor the fabric formwork the ruthless character of the poured plaster changed initial intentions to less controlled and little desired folds and bulges (not shown here). It took a long time to work with intricate principles and it still proved difficult to anticipate and achieve the results they desired. As a result, the students devised a formwork principle that, while simple to construct, would still result in sharp, controlled edges as well as soft curving surfaces. The principle was tested in the model shown above

  

Formgiver and structure

The storyboard shows the steps of constructing the column and the simplicity and tectonics of the structural formwork principle. The title is Compression and Expansion and refers to the role of the formwork sheets and the consequence on the poured fabric mold. I love how the interlocking and formgiving mdf-sheets are also what holds up the fabric tube. The principle means that the column has a square footprint and always two flat surfaces and two curved ones, i.e. quite a complex geometry.

 

[Left: the formwork structure ready for the pour. Right, detail of the formwork structure before stripping ; bits of cement has filtered through the fabric along with excess mix water during the pour.]

[Sketches from student report showing the principles and the steps of constructing the formwork]

 

Creases and shifts

Despite their work at simplifying the process for ultimate control, for the resulting fabric-formed concrete column, students were unhappy about little creases from the fabric as well as the asymmetry of the bulges. Especially the bottom has uneven bulges, which could have been avoided by adjusting the fabric tube before and during the pour, as well as working the concrete from outside the formwork – simply moving the fresh concrete by pushing against the membrane mold. Note, however, how identical creases can be found on the surface of the plaster model cast using the same principle.

This first meeting with concrete and principles formwork tectonics for first-year students is promising. If you are in Copenhagen, swing by the quay behind the RDAFA and check out the columns.

Credits

Work and drawings by: Oskar Mannov, Sidsel Petersen, Nora Ødegård, Cuong Tran, and Toke Ridderson.

TEK1 2013 concrete workshop organized and taught by Finn Bach, Tenna Beck, and Anne-Mette Manelius (yours Concretely) for the Institute of Architectural Technology at the RDAFASA

PS

I have written much more about formwork tectonics and stereogeneity (concrete as material and as process) in my PhD dissertation

Ensamble Studio's concrete sticks and bones

The Spanish architectural office Ensamble Studio uses concrete as a tectonic ensemble of elements or as a poured mass of liquid stone. Sticks and stones, in other words. -- enjoy a few videos of constructing the projects further down in this post.

Constructing solid space
For a while I was only familiar with their quirky project the Truffle. I like the conceptual approach to constructing space and structure. Bales of hay is used to construct the solid space, so to speak, and then concrete is poured all over it. - the main quirky part is the use of a neighbor's calf to feed off the hay and thus excavating the interior space over the summer. The cow grows as does the space.

[Image above by Ensamble Studio, 2010]

[Film about the cow Paulina and the project, YouTube link]

[This way of constructing space can be compared with the Bruder Klaus Kapel by Peter Zumthor. Here the space is constructed by wooded laths, cast in what appears to be a pisé technique - and finally the space is revealed by a fire burning away the wood.]

According to a lecture with an Ensamble Studio architect, the Truffle House was a prototype for another and much larger project to be cast in place and in which the different functions were conceived as spatial blocks connected by concrete pour. The studio did not win this competition but it would be great to see a scaled up version of this conceptual approach to casting, which is so bound to the process of construction and of very small projects.

Radical Sticks

Other projects use prefabricated and huge concrete elements, tectonic use of concrete sticks. - the Hemeroscopium House (2005) is pretty radical in its use of elements laying off eachother. And that's it - no cold bridges dealt with - and looots of concrete. I have seen images of livable spaces of the house. Images of the web site are more structural.

[Hemeroscopium House (2005) with the 'G point' rock on top. Via]

The office describes how: "It took us a year to engineer but only seven days to build the structure, thanks to a total prefabrication of the different elements and a perfectly coordinated rhythm of assembly. All of our effort oriented to develop the technique that would allow creating a very specific space. And thus, a new astonishing language is invented, where form disappears giving way to the naked space. Hemeroscopium house materializes the peak of its equilibrium with what in Ensamble Studio we ironically call the “G point”, a twenty ton granite stone, expression of the force of gravity and a physical counterweight to the whole structure."via

[Hemeroscopium House (2005) with the prestressed 'swimming pool profile' element. Via]

[4 minute movie of the construction, YouTube link]

Transformation of space and program

Reader's House is my favorite project and is the transformation of an old market hall to a cultural purpose. Here, long pre-streesed U-shaped elements, introduces a different orientation of the space, as well as the opportunity of a variety of programs on these bridge-like slabs. The slabs span the entire space in a simple and remarkable way.

[Images of the Reader's House, via]

"The Reader’s House project is the result of a competition that took place in 2006, in which Ensamble Studio won the first prize. The purpose of the competition was to restore the warehouses 13, 14, 17b and 17c of the Old Slaughterhouse to incorporate a new educational program.

The proposal made by Ensamble Studio maintains and enhances the original character of the industrial complex, by imposing a new order to the one of the pre-existent buildings. The confluence and relationship of the new system and the existing one forms a new space.

Two physical, perceptual and activity levels are defined forming a mutable scenario. The upper level, constructed with precast concrete beams of 40 Tons each, is a space for research and study. These beams are bridges, aerial streets, vectors of activity. In opposition to the basilica-like structure of the warehouses, longitudinal, light and metallic; the new structures are inserted through the windows and sew the space transversally, giving unity to the complex formed by the warehouses 13 and 14, which were previously independent buildings. The lower level participates, without losing its essence, of the rhythm marked by the upper level. Dynamic and mutable, this level will host the educational and cultural diffusion activities, enabling their future redefinition."From the Ensamble Studio website 

[Building the Reader's House, Youtube link]

Watch this video of the construction process - It's hard to explain and hard to believe the simplicity of the construction process, really - the accompanying music plays on this in Buster Keaton type way, I guess... I mean, Keaton and Ensamble do have some high precision planning in common if you think of this famous movie clip.

A doctoral dissertation

Better late than never, below is a link to my PhD thesis about the architectural potentials of fabric formwork. As always, feel free to contact me with feedback, much appreciated!!

[Cover of the dissertation about fabric formwork, by yours concretely]

[Cover of the appendix named Experimental with literally tons of fabric formed concrete constructed by hundreds of students, image of student project "Clamp Wall"]

The long title of the thesis is (take a deep breath) "Fabric Formwork for Concrete – Investigations Into formwork Tectonics and Stereogeneity in Architectural Constructions" and you can download it right here. Here is a link to some of the terminology used/coined.

Here is a much shorter version - an interview about the work.

[Yours concretely in the Ambiguous Chair, photo by Rikke Grendal]

Brief terminology of fabric formwork

For my doctoral dissertation, which I finally defended in July (yipee), I used or developed a number of concepts for the discussion of textile notions and 'concreteness' of fabric formed concrete 'Concreteness' is actually a term I abandon for a tendency to emphasize solely the dichotomy of fluid and solid - instead I invented my own concept, Stereogeneity. Below is summary of this and more key terms:

Concrete and cement

The term concrete is derived Lat. concrēscere, to grow together. The word cement is based on the ancient Roman definition of caementum, a mortar with a binding material for constructing walls. Béton is the term for modern concrete used in French, German and Danish. The word is derived from the Old French betum for a mass of rubbish.(1) See stereogeneity and condition.

Concreting

The procedures of pouring fresh concrete into a mold, or applying thin layers of fresh concrete

on a surface.

Condition

According to the Retrospective Object Theory posed by the Danish artist and Professor Willy Ørskov an art object and its becoming can be understood over time as a series of conditions.(2)

Fabric

A planar textile structure produced by interlacing yarns, fibers, or filaments. The word fabric is derived from Lat. fabrica, workshop, and the French fabriquer, to manufacture, and describes a  number of fabrications. The sense in English evolved via ‘manufactured material’ to ‘textile.’

Formwork tectonics

The relation and careful joining of between parts and whole of formwork structures. The formwork

tectonics of fabric formwork has the core parts: frame, form tie, and textile. Structuralformwork principles, see structure.

Stereogeneity

Word derived from the roots of Gr. stereos (solid) and ginomai (to begin to be); describes concrete as a material and a process and is a coinage of the author. The formal definition is suggested as: ‘the expressed manifestation into solid material form of a series of conditions from the construing and construction of structural formwork principles and concreting.’ See condition.

Structure and structural principles

The use of the word is influenced by the use in Danish struktur, from Lat. struere to pile up.

The word covers the linkages and relationships that exist between parts of a whole.(3) The German

architect Mies van der Rohe (1886 – 1969) defined structure in architecture as a philosophical concept: ’The whole, from top to bottom, to the last detail, with the same ideas.’(4) He saw structural order as a condition where ‘form becomes a consequence of structure and not the reason for the construction.’(5) Structural formwork principles, see formwork tectonics.

Technology and techne

The word is understood through the Greek words techne ‘art, skill, craft, method, system.’combining; and the root of legein ‘to speak’. The architectural scholar Marco Frascari refers to a dual-faced notion of technology because it unifies the tangible and the intangible of architecture.

Rhetorical, symbolic and reflective representations of technology thus refer to the techne of logos; scientific, instrumental and practical representations of technology refer to the logos of techne.(6)

Tectonics

Introduced to architectural discourse in the 19th century, several uses of the word are present in the dissertation: for practical use of tectonic thinking, see structure and formwork tectonics.

Analytical use of tectonics as the expressed manifestation of initial structural principles and the materials and processes,(7) see stereogeneity.

Textile

The term originally describes a specific mode of fabrication, to weave; from Latin: textilis, woven,

fabric, cloth. The word refers more generally to modes of construction for textiles. In the dissertation textile is used as a fabric surface, as structure as well as metaphor.

Notes

1: Peter Collins, Concrete, the Vision of a New Architecture: A Study of

Auguste Perret and his Precursors, 2nd ed. (McGill-Queen’s University

Press, 2004), 21.

2: Willy Ørskov, “Objekterne - Proces og Tilstand: forslag til en objektteori,”

in Samlet : Aflæsning af objekter, Objekterne, Den åbne

Skulptur, Antology of writings. (Borgen, 1999),

3: “Struktur”, Den Store Danske (online dictionary, Denmark: Gyldendal,

2012), www.denstoredanske.dk, (Accessed 15-01-2012).

4: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Peter Carter, Mies van der Rohe at

Work, reprint (org 1974). (London: Phaidon, 1999), 9.

5: Ibid.

6: Marco Frascari, Monsters of Architecture (Rowman & Littlefield

Publishers, 1991), 116–17.

7: Sekler, Eduard, “Structure, Construction, Tectonics,” in Structure in

Art and Science, ed. Gyorgy Kepes (George Braziller, 1965), 89-95.

Please reference my dissertation: Manelius, Anne-Mette (2012) Fabric Formwork for Concrete - Investigations into Formwork Tectonics and Stereogeneity in Architectural Constructions, the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation, School of Architecture.